Memory is not static. How you remember an event depends on a large number of variables, including everything from how much sleep you got the night before to how happy you were during the event. Memory is not always perfectly reliable, because it is influenced not only by the actual events it records, but also by other knowledge, experiences, expectations, interpretations, perceptions, and emotions. And memories are not necessarily permanent: they can disappear over time. This process is called forgetting. But why do we forget? The answer is currently unknown.
There are several theories that address why we forget memories and information over time, including trace decay theory, interference theory, and cue-dependent forgetting.
Trace Decay Theory
The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade automatically as a function of time. Under this theory, you need to follow a certain pathway, or trace, to recall a memory. If this pathway goes unused for some amount of time, the memory decays, which leads to difficulty recalling, or the inability to recall, the memory. Rehearsal, or mentally going over a memory, can slow this process. But disuse of a trace will lead to memory decay, which will ultimately cause retrieval failure. This process begins almost immediately if the information is not used: for example, sometimes we forget a person's name even though we have just met them.
Memory over time
Over time, a memory becomes harder to remember. A memory is most easily recalled when it is brand new, and without rehearsal, begins to be forgotten.
Interference Theory
It is easier to remember recent events than those further in the past. "Transience" refers to the general deterioration of a specific memory over time. Under interference theory, transience occurs because all memories interfere with the ability to recall other memories. Proactive and retroactive interference can impact how well we are able to recall a memory, and sometimes cause us to forget things permanently.
Memory interference
Both old and new memories can impact how well we are able to recall a memory. This is known as proactive and retroactive interference.
Proactive Interference
Proactive interference occurs when old memories hinder the ability to make new memories. In this type of interference, old information inhibits the ability to remember new information, such as when outdated scientific facts interfere with the ability to remember updated facts. This often occurs when memories are learned in similar contexts, or regarding similar things. It's when we have preconceived notions about situations and events, and apply them to current situations and events. An example would be growing up being taught that Pluto is a planet in our solar system, then being told as an adult that Pluto is no longer considered a planet. Having such a strong memory would negatively impact the recall of the new information, and when asked how many planets there are, someone who grew up thinking of Pluto as a planet might say nine instead of eight.
Retroactive Interference
Retroactive interference occurs when old memories are changed by new ones, sometimes so much that the original memory is forgotten. This is when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information. The ability to recall previously learned information is greatly reduced if that information is not utilized, and there is substantial new information being presented. This often occurs when hearing recent news figures, then trying to remember earlier facts and figures. An example of this would be learning a new way to make a paper airplane, and then being unable to remember the way you used to make them.
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
When we store a memory, we not only record all sensory data, we also store our mood and emotional state. Our current mood thus will affect the memories that are most effortlessly available to us, such that when we are in a good mood, we recollect good memories, and when we are in a bad mood, we recollect bad ones. This suggests that we are sometimes cued to remember certain things by, for example, our emotional state or our environment.
Cue-dependent forgetting, also known as retrieval failure, is the failure to recall information in the absence of memory cues. There are three types of cues that can stop this type of forgetting:
- Semantic cues are used when a memory is retrieved because of its association with another memory. For example, someone forgets everything about his trip to Ohio until he is reminded that he visited a certain friend there, and that cue causes him to recollect many more events of the trip.
- State-dependent cues are governed by the state of mind at the time of encoding. The emotional or mental state of the person (such as being inebriated, drugged, upset, anxious, or happy) is key to establishing cues. Under cue-dependent forgetting theory, a memory might be forgotten until a person is in the same state.
- Context-dependent cues depend on the environment and situation. Memory retrieval can be facilitated or triggered by replication of the context in which the memory was encoded. Such conditions can include weather, company, location, the smell of a particular odor, hearing a certain song, or even tasting a specific flavor.
Other Types of Forgetting
Trace decay, interference, and lack of cues are not the only ways that memories can fail to be retrieved. Memory's complex interactions with sensation, perception, and attention sometimes render certain memories irretrievable.
Absentmindedness
If you've ever put down your keys when you entered your house and then couldn't find them later, you have experienced absentmindedness. Attention and memory are closely related, and absentmindedness involves problems at the point where attention and memory interface. Common errors of this type include misplacing objects or forgetting appointments. Absentmindedness occurs because at the time of encoding, sufficient attention was not paid to what would later need to be recalled.
Blocking
Occasionally, a person will experience a specific type of retrieval failure called blocking. Blocking is when the brain tries to retrieve or encode information, but another memory interferes with it. Blocking is a primary cause of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. This is the failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent. People who experience this can often recall one or more features of the target word, such as the first letter, words that sound similar, or words that have a similar meaning. Sometimes a hint can help them remember: another example of cued memory.